Regulation Text
§ 61.31 Type rating requirements, additional training, and authorization requirements.
(a) Type ratings required. A person who acts as a pilot in command of any of the following aircraft must hold a type rating for that aircraft:
(1) Large aircraft (except lighter-than-air).
(2) Turbojet-powered airplanes.
(3) Other aircraft specified by the Administrator through aircraft type certificate procedures.
(b) Authorization in lieu of a type rating. A person may be authorized to operate without a type rating for up to 60 days an aircraft requiring a type rating, provided—
(1) The Administrator has authorized the flight or series of flights;
(2) The Administrator has determined that an equivalent level of safety can be achieved through the operating limitations on the authorization;
(3) The person shows that compliance with paragraph (a) of this section is impracticable for the flight or series of flights; and
(4) The flight—
(i) Involves only a ferry flight, training flight, test flight, or practical test for a pilot certificate or rating;
(ii) Is within the United States;
(iii) Does not involve operations for compensation or hire unless the compensation or hire involves payment for the use of the aircraft for training or taking a practical test; and
(iv) Involves only the carriage of flight crewmembers considered essential for the flight.
(5) If the flight or series of flights cannot be accomplished within the time limit of the authorization, the Administrator may authorize an additional period of up to 60 days to accomplish the flight or series of flights.
(c) Aircraft category, class, and type ratings: Limitations on the carriage of persons, or operating for compensation or hire. Unless a person holds a category, class, and type rating (if a class and type rating is required) that applies to the aircraft, that person may not act as pilot in command of an aircraft that is carrying another person, or is operated for compensation or hire. That person also may not act as pilot in command of that aircraft for compensation or hire.
(d) Aircraft category, class, and type ratings: Limitations on operating an aircraft as the pilot in command. To serve as the pilot in command of an aircraft, a person must—
(1) Hold the appropriate category, class, and type rating (if a class or type rating is required) for the aircraft to be flown; or
(2) Have received training required by this part that is appropriate to the pilot certification level, aircraft category, class, and type rating (if a class or type rating is required) for the aircraft to be flown, and have received an endorsement for solo flight in that aircraft from an authorized instructor.
(e) Additional training required for operating complex airplanes. (1) Except as provided in paragraph (e)(2) of this section, no person may act as pilot in command of a complex airplane, unless the person has—
(i) Received and logged ground and flight training from an authorized instructor in a complex airplane, or in a full flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of a complex airplane, and has been found proficient in the operation and systems of the airplane; and
(ii) Received a one-time endorsement in the pilot's logbook from an authorized instructor who certifies the person is proficient to operate a complex airplane.
(2) The training and endorsement required by paragraph (e)(1) of this section is not required if—
(i) The person has logged flight time as pilot in command of a complex airplane, or in a full flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of a complex airplane prior to August 4, 1997; or
(ii) The person has received ground and flight training under an approved training program and has satisfactorily completed a competency check under § 135.293 of this chapter in a complex airplane, or in a full flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of a complex airplane which must be documented in the pilot's logbook or training record.
(f) Additional training required for operating high-performance airplanes. (1) Except as provided in paragraph (f)(2) of this section, no person may act as pilot in command of a high-performance airplane (an airplane with an engine of more than 200 horsepower), unless the person has—
(i) Received and logged ground and flight training from an authorized instructor in a high-performance airplane, or in a full flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of a high-performance airplane, and has been found proficient in the operation and systems of the airplane; and
(ii) Received a one-time endorsement in the pilot's logbook from an authorized instructor who certifies the person is proficient to operate a high-performance airplane.
(2) The training and endorsement required by paragraph (f)(1) of this section is not required if—
(i) The person has logged flight time as pilot in command of a high-performance airplane, or in a full flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of a high-performance airplane prior to August 4, 1997; or
(ii) The person has received ground and flight training under an approved training program and has satisfactorily completed a competency check under § 135.293 of this chapter in a high performance airplane, or in a full flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of a high performance airplane which must be documented in the pilot's logbook or training record.
(g) Additional training required for operating pressurized aircraft capable of operating at high altitudes. (1) Except as provided in paragraph (g)(3) of this section, no person may act as pilot in command of a pressurized aircraft (an aircraft that has a service ceiling or maximum operating altitude, whichever is lower, above 25,000 feet MSL), unless that person has received and logged ground training from an authorized instructor and obtained an endorsement in the person's logbook or training record from an authorized instructor who certifies the person has satisfactorily accomplished the ground training. The ground training must include at least the following subjects:
(i) High-altitude aerodynamics and meteorology;
(ii) Respiration;
(iii) Effects, symptoms, and causes of hypoxia and any other high-altitude sickness;
(iv) Duration of consciousness without supplemental oxygen;
(v) Effects of prolonged usage of supplemental oxygen;
(vi) Causes and effects of gas expansion and gas bubble formation;
(vii) Preventive measures for eliminating gas expansion, gas bubble formation, and high-altitude sickness;
(viii) Physical phenomena and incidents of decompression; and
(ix) Any other physiological aspects of high-altitude flight.
(2) Except as provided in paragraph (g)(3) of this section, no person may act as pilot in command of a pressurized aircraft unless that person has received and logged training from an authorized instructor in a pressurized aircraft, or in a full flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of a pressurized aircraft, and obtained an endorsement in the person's logbook or training record from an authorized instructor who found the person proficient in the operation of a pressurized aircraft. The flight training must include at least the following subjects:
(i) Normal cruise flight operations while operating above 25,000 feet MSL;
(ii) Proper emergency procedures for simulated rapid decompression without actually depressurizing the aircraft; and
(iii) Emergency descent procedures.
(3) The training and endorsement required by paragraphs (g)(1) and (g)(2) of this section are not required if that person can document satisfactory accomplishment of any of the following in a pressurized aircraft, or in a full flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of a pressurized aircraft:
(i) Serving as pilot in command before April 15, 1991;
(ii) Completing a pilot proficiency check for a pilot certificate or rating before April 15, 1991;
(iii) Completing an official pilot-in-command check conducted by the military services of the United States; or
(iv) Completing a pilot-in-command proficiency check under part 121, 125, or 135 of this chapter conducted by the Administrator or by an approved pilot check airman.
(h) Additional aircraft type-specific training. No person may serve as pilot in command of an aircraft that the Administrator has determined requires aircraft type-specific training unless that person has—
(1) Received and logged type-specific training in the aircraft, or in a full flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of that type of aircraft; and
(2) Received a logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor who has found the person proficient in the operation of the aircraft and its systems.
(i) Additional training required for operating tailwheel airplanes. (1) Except as provided in paragraph (i)(2) of this section, no person may act as pilot in command of a tailwheel airplane unless that person has received and logged flight training from an authorized instructor in a tailwheel airplane and received an endorsement in the person's logbook from an authorized instructor who found the person proficient in the operation of a tailwheel airplane. The flight training must include at least the following maneuvers and procedures:
(i) Normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings;
(ii) Wheel landings (unless the manufacturer has recommended against such landings); and
(iii) Go-around procedures.
(2) The training and endorsement required by paragraph (i)(1) of this section is not required if the person logged pilot-in-command time in a tailwheel airplane before April 15, 1991.
(j) Additional training required for operating a glider. (1) No person may act as pilot in command of a glider—
(i) Using ground-tow procedures, unless that person has satisfactorily accomplished ground and flight training on ground-tow procedures and operations, and has received an endorsement from an authorized instructor who certifies in that pilot's logbook that the pilot has been found proficient in ground-tow procedures and operations;
(ii) Using aerotow procedures, unless that person has satisfactorily accomplished ground and flight training on aerotow procedures and operations, and has received an endorsement from an authorized instructor who certifies in that pilot's logbook that the pilot has been found proficient in aerotow procedures and operations; or
(iii) Using self-launch procedures, unless that person has satisfactorily accomplished ground and flight training on self-launch procedures and operations, and has received an endorsement from an authorized instructor who certifies in that pilot's logbook that the pilot has been found proficient in self-launch procedures and operations.
(2) The holder of a glider rating issued prior to August 4, 1997, is considered to be in compliance with the training and logbook endorsement requirements of this paragraph for the specific operating privilege for which the holder is already qualified.
(k) Additional training required for night vision goggle operations. (1) Except as provided under paragraph (k)(3) of this section, a person may act as pilot in command of an aircraft using night vision goggles only if that person receives and logs ground training from an authorized instructor and obtains a logbook or training record endorsement from an authorized instructor who certifies the person completed the ground training. The ground training must include the following subjects:
(i) Applicable portions of this chapter that relate to night vision goggle limitations and flight operations;
(ii) Aeromedical factors related to the use of night vision goggles, including how to protect night vision, how the eyes adapt to night, self-imposed stresses that affect night vision, effects of lighting on night vision, cues used to estimate distance and depth perception at night, and visual illusions;
(iii) Normal, abnormal, and emergency operations of night vision goggle equipment;
(iv) Night vision goggle performance and scene interpretation; and
(v) Night vision goggle operation flight planning, including night terrain interpretation and factors affecting terrain interpretation.
(2) Except as provided under paragraph (k)(3) of this section, a person may act as pilot in command of an aircraft using night vision goggles only if that person receives and logs flight training from an authorized instructor and obtains a logbook or training record endorsement from an authorized instructor who found the person proficient in the use of night vision goggles. The flight training must include the following tasks:
(i) Preflight and use of internal and external aircraft lighting systems for night vision goggle operations;
(ii) Preflight preparation of night vision goggles for night vision goggle operations;
(iii) Proper piloting techniques when using night vision goggles during the takeoff, climb, enroute, descent, and landing phases of flight; and
(iv) Normal, abnormal, and emergency flight operations using night vision goggles.
(3) The requirements under paragraphs (k)(1) and (2) of this section do not apply if a person can document satisfactory completion of any of the following pilot proficiency checks using night vision goggles in an aircraft:
(i) A pilot proficiency check on night vision goggle operations conducted by the U.S. Armed Forces.
(ii) A pilot proficiency check on night vision goggle operations under part 135 of this chapter conducted by an Examiner or Check Airman.
(iii) A pilot proficiency check on night vision goggle operations conducted by a night vision goggle manufacturer or authorized instructor, when the pilot—
(A) Is employed by a Federal, State, county, or municipal law enforcement agency; and
(B) Has logged at least 20 hours as pilot in command in night vision goggle operations.
(l) Exceptions. (1) This section does not require a category and class rating for aircraft not type-certificated as airplanes, rotorcraft, gliders, lighter-than-air aircraft, powered-lifts, powered parachutes, or weight-shift-control aircraft.
(2) The rating limitations of this section do not apply to—
(i) An applicant when taking a practical test given by an examiner;
(ii) The holder of a student pilot certificate;
(iii) The holder of a pilot certificate when operating an aircraft under the authority of—
(A) A provisional type certificate; or
(B) An experimental certificate, unless the operation involves carrying a passenger;
(iv) The holder of a pilot certificate with a lighter-than-air category rating when operating a balloon;
(v) The holder of a recreational pilot certificate operating under the provisions of § 61.101(h); or
(vi) The holder of a sport pilot certificate when operating a light-sport aircraft.
[Doc. No. 25910, 62 FR 40896, July 30, 1997, as amended by Amdt. 61-104, 63 FR 20286, Apr. 23, 1998; Amdt. 61-110, 69 FR 44865, July 27, 2004; Amdt. 61-124, 74 FR 42548, Aug. 21, 2009; Amdt. 61-128, 76 FR 54105, Aug. 31, 2011; Amdt. 61-142, 83 FR 30276, June 27, 2018]
Research Notes
Research Notes — § 61.31 Type Rating Requirements, Additional Training, and Authorization Requirements
Overview
Section 61.31 is one of the longest and most consequential sections in Subpart A. It establishes when a type rating is required (paragraph (a)), the special-authorization workaround for up to 60 days (paragraph (b)), and the full suite of aircraft-specific additional training endorsements that apply to every pilot operating complex, high-performance, pressurized, tailwheel, glider, and NVG-equipped aircraft. Getting any of these wrong is a certificate action waiting to happen.
Type Ratings — What Triggers the Requirement (Paragraph (a))
Three categories require a type rating: (1) large aircraft except lighter-than-air — "large" meaning more than 12,500 lbs maximum certificated takeoff weight per § 1.1; (2) turbojet-powered airplanes — regardless of size, a TJ rating is required; (3) other aircraft specified by type certificate. The Citation Mustang, for instance, is a light jet but still requires a CE-510S type rating because it is turbojet-powered. Weight alone does not determine the type rating requirement for jets.
Reference: 14 CFR § 1.1 (definitions — "large aircraft"); 14 CFR § 61.31(a).
Complex Airplane Endorsement (Paragraph (e))
A "complex airplane" is defined in § 61.1(b) as an airplane that has a retractable landing gear, flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller. All three must be present. A Piper Arrow (retractable + flaps + CSP) qualifies. A Cessna Cardinal RG (retractable + flaps, but fixed-pitch propeller) does not. The endorsement is a one-time event — it does not expire, and it follows the pilot, not the specific aircraft. Reference: AC 61-98D, Currency Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check.
High-Performance Endorsement (Paragraph (f))
High-performance means more than 200 horsepower — not exactly 200. A Cessna 172R with a 160 hp Lycoming does not require the endorsement. A Piper Saratoga with a 300 hp Continental does. Like complex, this is a one-time endorsement and does not expire. The training must be in a high-performance airplane or a representative FFS/FTD. Reference: § 61.31(f); AC 61-98D.
Pressurized Aircraft Training (Paragraph (g))
The threshold is aircraft with a service ceiling or maximum operating altitude above 25,000 feet MSL. This captures turboprop singles like the TBM series and most cabin-class twins. The training requirement has two distinct components — ground training covering 9 specific physiological topics, and flight training covering 3 specific operational areas. Both require separate endorsements. The ground training alone is not sufficient for legal PIC operations. Reference: § 61.31(g).
Tailwheel Endorsement (Paragraph (i))
The tailwheel endorsement requires training in a tailwheel airplane — not a simulator or FTD. The minimum maneuvers: normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings; wheel landings (unless the manufacturer has prohibited them); and go-arounds. The "unless the manufacturer has recommended against such landings" carve-out applies to some aircraft like the Piper J-3 Cub, where wheel landings are not recommended by the type club or manufacturer guidance — though the practical reality varies by DPE. Reference: § 61.31(i). See also: AOPA's tailwheel training guidance.
Grandfather Clause for Pre-1991/1997 Pilots
Several endorsements (complex, high-performance, pressurized, tailwheel) are not required if the pilot can document acting as PIC in the relevant category before the specified cutoff date — typically April 15, 1991 for pressurized and tailwheel, August 4, 1997 for complex and high-performance. This exempts many experienced pilots who were flying these aircraft before the endorsement requirements were created. Documentation of the logged time is the pilot's burden.
Recent Amendment — NVG Training (Paragraph (k))
Night vision goggle (NVG) training requirements were added by Amdt. 61-128 (2011). The most recent substantive amendment to § 61.31 was dated 2025-10-22, reflecting ongoing regulatory refinements. Always confirm current text at eCFR § 61.31.
FAA Letter of Interpretation References
The FAA Chief Counsel's office has issued multiple letters interpreting § 61.31 endorsement requirements. Notable interpretations clarify that the complex endorsement covers operations in any complex airplane (not aircraft-specific), and that the high-performance threshold refers to the installed engine horsepower rating, not actual power setting. These are available at FAA Legal Interpretations.
The Endorsement Map — § 61.31 Decoded
Section 61.31 is the FAA's master list of "you don't just walk up to this airplane and fly it." Each paragraph below names a different category of airplane, the trigger that snaps the rule into effect, and the endorsement (or rating) you need before you can act as PIC.
Read the table once, slowly. This is the muscle memory every CFI and examiner expects you to have on the tip of your tongue.
| What kicks in | The trigger | Where it lives |
|---|---|---|
| Type rating | Large aircraft (over 12,500 lb MCAW), turbojet-powered airplanes, or other aircraft the Administrator specifies | § 61.31(a) |
| Complex endorsement | Retractable landing gear, flaps, and a controllable-pitch propeller — all three | § 61.31(e) |
| High-performance endorsement | An airplane with an engine of more than 200 horsepower | § 61.31(f) |
| Pressurized / high-altitude endorsement | Service ceiling or maximum operating altitude, whichever is lower, above 25,000 feet MSL | § 61.31(g) |
| Tailwheel endorsement | Any airplane with a tailwheel | § 61.31(i) |
Now the honest part most students miss. A logbook endorsement under § 61.31 is permanent. Once a CFI signs your book for complex, high-performance, or tailwheel, that signature doesn't expire. You carry that authority forever — across airplanes, across decades, across job changes.
But here's the catch: permanence on paper is not the same as proficiency in the airplane. The endorsement says you were trained once, to standard, by an authorized instructor. It does not say you're sharp today. Any CFI, club, or insurance policy can still look at you and say, "I want to see you fly this thing before I sign you off in it." That's not a regulatory contradiction — that's the system working as intended. The reg sets the floor. Your operator, your insurer, and your own honest self-assessment set the ceiling.
What an Examiner Asks About § 61.31
This is one of those sections where an examiner can tell in 30 seconds whether you actually understand the regs or whether you memorized a study guide. Expect questions like:
- "Walk me through the endorsements you currently hold." Pull out your logbook. Name them. Cite the paragraph. ("Complex, under § 61.31(e). High-performance, under (f). Tailwheel, under (i).")
- "What makes an airplane complex?" All three: retractable gear, flaps, and a controllable-pitch propeller. Miss one and it's not complex.
- "What makes an airplane high-performance?" An engine of more than 200 horsepower. Read that word carefully.
- "Is a Cessna 182RG complex and high-performance?" Yes. Retractable gear, flaps, constant-speed prop, 235 hp. It trips both endorsements — and you need both before acting as PIC.
The trick examiners love: a Lycoming O-360 rated at exactly 200 hp is not high-performance. The reg says "more than 200." Two hundred on the nose doesn't cross the line. Know the word.
Getting Your First Tailwheel Endorsement, Under § 61.31
Picture a new private pilot who just bought a share in a Citabria. She has zero tailwheel time. Here's how § 61.31(i) actually plays out:
Find a tailwheel CFI. Not just any CFI — one who has real time in taildraggers and a current habit of flying them. The reg doesn't require this; common sense does. A tricycle-gear-only instructor signing your tailwheel book is a red flag.
Train to proficiency. There is no minimum hour requirement in § 61.31(i). Some pilots are sharp in 5 hours. Others need 15. The standard is proficiency, not a number. Your CFI's signature is on the line — they don't sign until they'd put their own family in the right seat.
Cover the required maneuvers. The regulation specifies normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings, wheel landings (unless the manufacturer recommends against them), and go-arounds. Don't skip the wheel landings just because they're harder. They're in the reg for a reason.
Get the logbook entry. One signature, citing § 61.31(i)(1). That endorsement is now permanent — you can legally act as PIC of any tailwheel airplane the rest of your life.
But circle back to the honest framing. The endorsement says you were trained. It says nothing about whether you're proficient in this airplane, on this day, in this wind. Carry both: the legal authority in your logbook, and the discipline to know when you're not sharp enough to use it. That's airmanship — and § 61.31 only writes half of it down.
Amendment History
AOA Notes
These notes correspond to the highlighted phrases in the regulation text above. Each one flags something worth knowing — a common misread, a checkride gotcha, or a practical pro tip.
CFI Commentary
Highlighted phrases in the regulation text above link to instructor notes at the bottom of this page. Look for the amber or blue highlights — each one flags a gotcha or a pro tip worth knowing.